Effects of the Fur Trade on Native Societies Essay

Between the fifteenth and the nineteenth century the fur trade and slave trade connected the global commerce, and played a significant role in world history. Each of them transformed the destiny of North American and African society. Politically, economically and culturally, North Americans were dying slowly in seemingly more peaceful fur trade, and Africans were immediately hit by the wreaked havoc of slave trade. North America’s ostensible peace with the outside world could not avoid civil wars, as African people’s self-protection could not avoid European gory violent human plunder. In Africa, people were still live in a village community system with introverted self-governments. When colonists came, big kingdoms fragmented because the increasing of trade and arms. In this way, there was not a large-scale revolt or uprising in native Africa. As a result, small societies suffered from frequent slave raiding. As long as their own village was safe, they passively watched as people in other villages were raided and sold. Benin was a developed state in West Africa. In the 16th century the oba banned slave trade and relatively avoided slave traders. They bought arms from Europeans to protect themselves, but never helped others. In consequence, the power of oba declined in the 18th century and they could not stop the slave trade any more (456-457). When armed aggressors burst in small villages, they could not even protect themselves like Benin, but just be pillaged in desperation. Native Americans maintained cooperative relationships with Europeans under the fur trade. It protected them from extinction and slavery like those in Africa. However native people noticed the benefit of the fur trade, and then the profit of trade intensified the competition among tribes. They began to demand guns to deal with other tribes – and Europeans had gun. Therefore a circulation of furs and guns was fo rmed, and the increasing of arms imports aggravated the political conflicts of native people. In other words, more trade, more warfare. Fur trade brought North America both modern civilization and prolonged damage, yet the African economy was directly attacked by slave trade. North Americans traded furs with Europeans and received foreign goods and benefits such as pots, guns and metals. Europeans finished products gave them modern technology and tools, and caused the self-sufficiency system to transform to agricultural villages. Hurons lived in North America â€Å"in the early seventeenth century†. They traded many beavers and â€Å"received copper pots, metal axes, knives, cloth, firearms, and alcohol† (447). It was a big step for North America, to become a modern and developed society. Nevertheless, it was also the start of a long-term decline. â€Å"By the 1760s, hunters in southern British colonies took about 500,000 deer every year† (446). Hunters largely killed industrious animals, the amount of them sharply decreased. The fur trade absorbed labor supply, and restricted other developments. In reality, North America had been lagged behind chronically under the simple and dependent economic system caused by fur trade. Unlike North America, Africa had been steadily developing for a while in sixteenth century. The slave trade, was unprecedented havoc for native people and society. Just demographically, Africa lost millions of population in the fifteenth through nineteenth century. The productivity was greatly broken. The economy stagnated, or even retrogressed without technology. Both native North American and African people lost part of their ethos and native culture. North America was changed more by profit motive; however Africa was forced by demographical transformation and authorities’ avarice. Before European’s arrival, North Americans led a primitive lifestyle as a part of nature. They had laggard tools and technology but mastered natural environment. Their moral quality could be confirmed by the origin of Thanksgiving holiday: Native Indian helped European settlers tide over the hard time. Although they were economically backward, their spiritual civilization was wealthy. But after they began to trade with Europeans, they killed animals in quantity, overly reclaimed land, and broke their belief of nature. The benefits of furs led people to trade for guns and fight other tribes. Many of them became alcoholics, spent a lot of money to buy rum and brandy. They used foreign products all the time, and forgot their traditional crafts. In Africa, Europeans raided and drove away people in different cultures, and exterminated many ancient civilizations. The Europeans trading living human without caring whether they lived or died, was a bloody humiliation in the history. The hard truth is that many native authorities joined slave trading for their own interest. Dahomey was a highly authoritarian state in eighteenth century. They fully participated in slave trade and helped Europeans capture a lot of native people (456-457). It was a miserable shame of African culture and entire human history, that the chiefs of states helped invaders do human trafficking. Both trades certainly destroyed a part of native civilization, and changed a part of people. The politics, culture and economy of the native North Americans were gradually negatively affected while trading with Europeans and Africans were rapidly devastated by large human raid. Once, struggling in the wheel of history, they grew and died.

Eddie Carbone Essay

Eddie Carbone is a complicated character, some say he is a villain due to the actions that he takes, others sympathise with him, saying that he is a victim. You can view him in different lights, although he acts, some may say, in a villainous manner, he is a victim of his feelings, confused and unsure of the right thing to do. Eddie has very strong feelings that he finds very difficult to cope with, this leads the audience to feel sympathy towards him. He loves Catherine and feels very responsible for her well being. He shows this when he say’s â€Å"I promised your mother on her deathbed. Eddie feels he has a sense of duty that he needs to protect her from the outside world. He is at conflict with himself as he feels responsible for Catherine but also knows that he needs to let her go. He is also jealous and disgusted by Rodolfo. When Eddie kisses Rodolfo, he implied that Rodolfo was â€Å"queer†. This was a desperate act to get rid of Rodolfo and therefore keep Catherine close to home. Eddie has mixed feelings about this because he wants Catherine to stay at home but also he wants to keep his name in the community. Eddie also has very strong principles which influence his judgement; this allows the audience to empathise with him. Eddie has strong loyalties and a sense of family with Beatrice and Catherine. He shows that family should stick together when he says to Beatrice â€Å"you will be on my side or theirs, that’s all. † This shows how important he values a close knit family who stick together no matter what. It also shows that to be strong he thinks he needs a family around him to support him and back him up. Eddie has strong values in regard to the importance of community. When he warns Catherine of the Vinnie Bolzano story, it shows that he values the importance of community. That no one can live without their reputation and loyalty of wife and neighbours. This also shows that he is willing to fight to get it back. This portrays how much his emotions have overpowered his values as he goes against the community when he betrays Marco and Rodolfo later in the scene. Eddie takes quite daring actions in the later parts of the play, this causes the audience and other characters to judge him. Eddie is desperate to prove that Rodolfo is not worthy of Catherine. When he kisses Rodolfo it implies that Rodolfo is â€Å"queer†. Catherine is quite disgusted by what Eddie is implying and shocked that he would treat people in that way. The audience is shocked and again disgusted with the lengths that Eddie would go to in order to get what he wants. Eddie was desperate to get rid of Rodolfo when reports him and his brother to the immigration office. Eddies betrayal of Rodolfo and Marco showed his true colours and how he really felt about Catherine. This shocked the audience and made them judge him as disloyal and hypercritical. Making them judge him as a villain. Eddie has very strong feelings of pride which cause him to act in a villainous manner. Eddie finds criticism difficult to deal with and is very aware of people judging him. He refuses Beatrice when she asks â€Å"when will I be a wife again Eddie? † This causes problems in his relationship with Beatrice as he lets his pride get in the way. He never compromises but instead lets his views be coloured by his principles. Eddie has unusual feelings towards Catherine, this makes the audience feel uncomfortable and make them feel that he is acting inappropriately. When he kisses Catherine, he is under the influence of alcohol, this causes the worst elements of his character to emerge. It shows how he is really feeling about her and also that he is hoping for her to feel the same way. In conclusion I think that Eddie Carbone is a victim more than a villain as the way he is feeling makes him act the way that some may describe villainous. He dies a tragic hero as he is just standing up for what he believes in and trying to make what he thinks right, reality.

Leadership and Decision making styles Slp Assignment

Leadership and Decision making styles Slp - Assignment Example The management of our organization had to restructure most of the systems and position the organization in the best way to manage the competition. If this was not done, the organization was at the verge of collapse. A major strategic change was called for and all the departmental heads were consulted for their ideas. The main decision to change the strategies of operation of the organization was made by the Chief Executive Officer of the organization. However, he had a consultative meeting with all the stakeholders as well as the technical experts including the departmental heads to find the best solutions to the problems affecting the organization as far as competition is regarded. The question was not well-structured in such a way that one could just find a direct solutions to it. Each department was required to contribute their suggestions on how they feel the issue could be handle and the departmental level. With all the information collected, the implementation was to involve the whole team working together with commitments. Ultimately, a solution was found that required the whole team to participate in its implementation. It is clear that our CEO applied collaborative decision making style even though he could make the ultimate decision on his own. While following the Vroom-Yetton seven questions and applying them to the diagram, I come to find out that the decision making style applied by our CEO is categorized as G2 decision making style (Rigolosi, 2005). Under this style, the supervisor and the team need to work together to arrive at a decision. Exactly, this is what happened in our organization, the CEO worked together with the departmental heads as well as some technical expertise to find solutions to the organizational problems. Under this case, the role of the CEO was majorly facilitative as he could only make

Artwork Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Artwork Analysis - Essay Example By depicting animals and actions with such vitality and vividness, Rubens skillfully played with the viewers’ eyes and translated strong visuals into emotions, creating experiences of fear, tension, and danger—providing them with awe and amazement. ?As I view this oil painting by Peter Paul Rubens, the first thing that strikes my attention is the size of the painting. The painting is about 96 inches high and 148 inches wide. The magnitude of the painting makes the monumental hunting scene of the nobles even more dynamic and intense as if the scene of action is displayed on a theater screen and the danger is right before your eyes. I look closely, and, like most if not all of Rubens’s other works, this one is definitely portrayed in a dynamic fashion, with the galloping horses and all characters in violent actions. It is no wonder that he became such a famous and significant painter. His oil paintings are world renowned all over, and it is obvious why. This man ha d a great eye for detail and an ability to capture landscapes and animals in a way that was absolutely stunning and astonishingly good. These high-quality paintings that he created set the stage for his artworks being sold off to private collectors around the world, as well as being placed in their own galleries in several art museums globally. Binary Oppositions On the foreground, the composition is made up of two men and a woman riding on horses and a group of five men with spears in the groups. In the lower center of the composition, it is made up of two wolves, three foxes—with one being dead—and six dogs. The background is a beautiful landscape, and, upon closer scrutiny, I notice two more dogs following a man on horse on a small, almost miniscule, scale—creating a fantastic sense of depth. I then observed the facial traits of the people involved in the painting—the fearsome facial expressions on the hunters’ faces, and the cooperation of thei r servants. From these observations, it could be interpreted that the human action is the most important form in this painting because it leads to the deeper meaning of the image. As I have observed, the deeper meaning of this image is for the artist to effectively portray and honor the group of noble’s fearlessness and bravery and a scene of success of man versus nature. ?I have observed that the focus of the painting is the men on horses; their position in the painting reflects their high status in society. Because of such positioning, viewers would surely first recognize the nobles on horses at the heroes of the scene even though many others are involved. Aside from these observations, I also noticed the dynamic of the wolves and their expressions that show even though that men are powerful in this composition—but the wolves are not so easily defeated. One more reason that the hunter on the galloping white horse is more prominent is that sharp and bright colors coul d first catch one’s attention, as compared to dark colors. The saturated white horse and the saturated green jacket that the hunter is wearing make viewers more inclined to concentrate their focus on him at first. ? Anomalies of the Painting Color is a general key in setting up emotional connotation to the objects and space. For example, the use of color

UPS Invests Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

UPS Invests - Essay Example Many of these objectives are going to be attained by monitoring, fuel consumption which will mean that they will be able to use less fuel during their activities. Another thing that the company aims at by introducing the new technology is to encourage responsibility and accountability of their employees. With the new technology they will be able to monitor their activities throughout the world. There are a number of things that United Parcel Service is doing in the bid of embracing technology. They are fitting their delivery vans with sensors that enable them to collect data about the activities that these vans are involved in. For the data that is collected to be inclusive the sensors are installed various parts of the vehicles. The parts of the vehicles that are fitted with these sensors include: the brakes, engine boxes, and the accelerators. A combination of data collected from these parts can help in coming up with inclusive information on the performance of these vehicles. The data that they aim at collecting include information about the routes used by the vans, the amount of fuel consumed by the vans, and amount of time that the engines are left idle. Given that most of their parcel transportation takes place through air transport, they also aim at conserving flight fuel, moderating flight speed, and regulating the routes that are used by their flights. The sensors that are used by their trucks will also see to it that the consumption of fuel is minimized. Every morning the drivers are briefed on the data that was collected from the vehicle that they drive (Sobey, 2009). Apart from the briefing the company also offers advice to the drivers on things that they could do to make sure that their activities contributes to the sustainability of the company. There are a number of ways in which United Parcel Service will benefit from virtualization. The

Conflict Management Theory and The Role of Manager Assignment

Conflict Management Theory and The Role of Manager - Assignment Example When people work in teams clashes of opinions are likely to occur and every manager has to deal with the conflicts in a positive way. A qualified manager can intellectually appreciate that conflicts are the necessary ingredient of a free - enterprise system( Abraham, 1965). He also should take appropriate steps to resolve the conflicts and draw meaningful implications from them. The following essay attempts to explore the role played by the manager as a leader and a mediator in resolving conflicts. The major sources of conflict in an organization are personal differences, informational deficiencies, role incompatibility and environmental stress(David and Kim, 2005). According to him, personal differences are a common source of conflicts as individuals come together to play certain defined roles in an organization. The people who form the team for the completion of a specific task come from various cultures, family traditions and extent of socialization, etc. Hence, it is very common that conflicts will arise when they work together to achieve a common objective. They differ in their perceptions about the challenges ahead of them and they also differ in their expectations about the outcomes from specified situations. When there is a mismatch between the perceptions and expectations, the situation can take a personal overtone which may be the major source of organizational conflicts. Secondly, informational deficiencies can also be a major source of conflict. There may be lapses in the information flow between various functional units or individuals. These lapses may be due to technological disabilities or psychological barriers. Technological barriers can be caused by dysfunction of technical equipment used for communication and psychological barriers can be caused by various factors such as lack of knowledge and understanding, presumptions of the person receiving the message. Next, role incompatibility is another major source of conflict. Most often this factor causes more conflicts because when it is combined with the above two factors, it causes more deep conflicts. When the team members operate with different types of people, systems, processes, and procedures and report to various team leaders, the overlapping of the roles played by the personnel can cause conflict. Lastly, environmentally induced stress caused by a change in economic conditions. Family relationships, changes in the organization, etc can be major triggers for conflicts. Especially during the times of economic slowdown as in recent times, it is very stressful for the employees. Stress due to insecurity due to change in environmental conditions can cause deep mistrust on each other and can cause teamwork more difficult. When the employees are subject to uncertainty about their job status it can cause frustration and conflicts are more certain to occur. When these types of factors influence the behavior of employees, it is the duty of the manager to take up the role of mediator and facilitator to establish smooth working relationships and achieve organizational objectives.

Why study the humanities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Why study the humanities - Essay Example They complete the degrees to make their parents happy but pursue a very different career path where their passion lies. This leads to time wastage and wasting of resources. These parents could have used that money to enroll their children in courses that the students’ desire be it humanities or sciences. Thus, it is important to study humanities due to various reasons. One of them is the ability to understand the diverse cultures of various individuals. It is evident that in the various working stations of individuals, you will find people from various cultural backgrounds. It is important to understand the way of life of such individuals to enable a good working relationship to ensue. Humanities help us understand that there are diverse cultures, values, and beliefs of individuals that need to be respected to avoid conflicts. It enables us to have an imagined way of life created by the different minds thus helping us understand how individuals in different cultural backgrounds live. Humanities also awaken the imagination of individuals enabling them to think critically and independently. From this imagination, individuals are able to develop their creativity. Various works of arts are works of imagination. Imagine watching a play and you feel so connected with it. You feel as if what is happening in the play is happening in real life. That is the works of creativity and that is what learning humanities help to achieve. That movie that you love a lot or that song that you love; it was written and created by a humanity student. Therefore, if individuals think that learning humanities is not important, they should try to figure out what they would do without their favorite music or movie to help them unwind after a very long day. Learning humanities is also important since it allows individuals to learn the cultures of different individuals across the globe. It would be unfortunate to travel to a country that values

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) & Male Circumcision, is it a social Research Paper - 1

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) & Male Circumcision, is it a social custom or a religious practice - Research Paper Example legally mandated to ensure that all citizens enjoy their rights and happiness, without prejudice or favor because of social, racial, or religious orientation. Male circumcision and female genital mutilation are issues that have raised intense debate on whether they should be treated as religious or social custom practices. However, in view of the historical practices of both male circumcision and female genital mutilation, the practice should be regarded as social but not as religious issue. In addition, United States should not allow these practices among young boys and girls. Researchers have established that female genital mutilation and male circumcision affect the anatomy of the external reproductive organs of both sexes, which ultimately leads to alteration of sensation during sexual intercourse (Toubia, 1993, p31). These findings have been applied for a long time in different societies to achieve different social objectives, including suppression of sexual feelings. According to Dally(1991, p37), female genital mutilation has been in existence for over 4000 years ago and between 80 to 100 million women have undergone the rite in different parts of the world. There are different reasons that proponents of female genital mutilation use to justify the practice. These include the argument that it is a tradition that is prescribed by the religion (Porter, et al 1986, p 652). Moreover Toubia (1993, p62), argues that female genital mutilation is one of the many practices surrounded by myths and beliefs. Unfortunately, these myths and beliefs have been used for so long to justify the perpetuation of the practice in the society. Toubia (1993, p68) notes that in societies where female genital mutilation is prevalent, uncircumcised women do not get marriage partners because such women are perceived to contain several shortcomings. In most societies that practice the vice, uncircumcised women are considered unfaithful to their husbands once they get

Reflection on the The Political Morality of Race Work Essay - 1

Reflection on the The Political Morality of Race Work - Essay Example Having ‘racial label’ do shape the way people think of themselves. As stated with the same source, â€Å"what people can do depends on what concept they have available to them; and among the concepts that may shape one's action is the concept of a certain kind of person and the behavior appropriate to that kind†. Helping one person think he is inferior among others may add more insult to injury and this indeed will result in final self-breakdown. How devastating that would be! Culture and civilization also became an object in Kwame Anthony Appiah’s essay. These two has a function in further dividing individuals globally by racial differences. He defined culture as â€Å"the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought†. There have been Orientals, Africans, and Chinese people that were to adopt a culture and civilization different from their traditional one such as th at of Americans but still there the differences are noticeable. It is said that every race has its own common culture. Like black Americans have their own common culture on â€Å"values and beliefs and practices that they share and they do not share with others†, as stated in the essay. It is true that each nation and race has its own culture. This may lead to some racial gaps in our global society. Yet, it is not simply a hindrance in having a good relationship with them. Unless they wouldn’t do something terrorist act, what is wrong with dealing with them? All of us are both humans. We do need respect and equality. What is the United Nations for but to supposedly bring peace and equality globally? Why can’t other people bridge the differences and go on living life to the full together in accord? Civilization may play a great role in stereotyping minority race. However, it is not always good for some nations that view their race inferior to others. Countries th at are well-developed economically were viewed by many as greater than anybody else. To mention some, the USA and Britain are viewed as masters of the land. They run the world market.     

Competition and Business Risk Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Competition and Business Risk - Assignment Example he individual reflective report will act as an overview of the strategies that were implemented by Head Start Footwear through the business strategy game (BSG) that was played from year 11 to year 15 on a period of 5 weeks. The major aim of this reflective report is be to make an evaluation of my knowledge of how to run a business by making use of the business strategy game. The report will also highlight how I used the Belbins typology to analyse my team members and myself, the theories that I have found helpful from other courses that studied on my masters programme, and what I have leant in relation to business strategy. Figures and facts retrieved from business strategy game will be provided to support the report’s arguments in the report such as the image rating and investor expectation as shown in the figure below. The business strategy game (BSG) offers me practice to make business decisions. The game also enables me to learn how to come up with strategies for winning in a highly competitive market. It also enables me to be held answerable for my actions, in comparison to the business managers who are held responsible for their firm’s performance in the real world (Thompson, Stappenbeck, & Reidenbach, 2013:33). The other benefit is that we can learn more of the BSG exercise by taking up a role a business expert attempting to attain the best organizational performance by making use of managerial prudence and responsible business approaches (Thompson, Stappenbeck, & Reidenbach, 2013:34). BSG gives the opportunity to put what I have learnt into action in order to gain some expertise in applying the skill of strategic analysis. I was able to access the most recent industry-wide developments, create a long-term direction for my company H, create and attain strategic financial goals, and lastly, I came up with ways of producing best results and possibly result to gaining some competitive advantage. Consequently, there the results for Head Start Footwear

Ancient Religions Essay Example for Free

Ancient Religions Essay The ancient Norse religion was commonly followed and practiced by people in northern regions of the world, such as Scandinavia, Norway, Iceland and surrounding countries. It was believed that the world first came about when a northern and southern land, Niflheim and Muspellheim, both joined together. Niflheim (house of mists) , an extremely cold, icy land and Muspellheim (home of desolation) the seemingly opposite of Niflheim, a hot, fiery land. As both lands joined together, the reaction of the contrasting temperatures caused the ice of Niflheim to melt creating the first two living creatures Ymer, the giant and Audhumla, a female cow. From these two the first Gods were created (Odin, Vile and Ve), and from them the first human beings were created by Odin from an elm and ash tree. Due to a disagreeance between Ymer and the God’s, the giant was killed and from his body, landforms and other living races were created. The gods were revered by many as they were the creators of the races and established the different parts of the world, the world tree or Yggdrasil included. The Yggdrasil is one of the principal beliefs in Nordic religion as it was known as the centre of their nordic universe, the world tree was said to have held nine different realms within its branches. The realms were situated in different areas of the tree at the top, within the canopy; Asgard (heaven) was located. This is where many gods lived including Odin in Valhalla. In addition to Asgard two other realms Vanaheim (home of the fertility god) and Aflheim (home of light elves) were located at the highest level of the world tree. These realms were known as â€Å"divine†. Norse folk believed that Midgard, the middle section of Yggdrasil held the human world. Along with midgard, Nidavellir, Jotunheim and Svartalfhiem, home of the dwarves, giants and dark elves were also present here. At the third and bottom level of the tree the two lands that created the first living beings are found. It is believed that Hel, the place of death, is part of the harsh, destitute lands of Niflheim. Hel is connected to one of the three main root of the world tree and it is known as the underworld, the second root leads to Jotunheim( realm of the giants) and the third is connected to the divine realm, Asgard. The roots linked together the different levels and realms of the tree, likewise Bifrost, a magical bridge located between Asgard and the human world, Midgard was another connection between realms, allowing gods an entrance into the mortal world. The Influence of the Nordic beliefs in society was great as followers of the ancient religion could identify with the extreme life conditions and harsh weather that was also portrayed in the Nordic creation story. The Norse saw their conditions of life as a blessing from the gods and often used these gifts to the greatest advantage for example men often became farmers, cultivators, tradesmen or traders. Women in Nordic society also searched for meaning and insight from the gods as they held powerful positions in the religion. Women played a strong part in the community and often had to run the villages when the Viking warriors were away. The Norse strived to maintain a balanced lifestyle from the influence of what they had learned and incorporated from the gods. Odin was known as a wise and great warrior and many Viking men chose to follow the same path by becoming a warrior also. I was believed that one of the only worthy ways to die was to die in battle. This factor greatly contributed to the decisions of the Norse men. When a warrior died in battle he would go on to Valhalla, in the divine realm, if not they would go to Hel. The Norse people not only sought meaning from the gods, but from the actions and rituals they performed.

Environmental Ethics Review of Literature

Environmental Ethics Review of Literature This chapter provides the review of literatures that forms the framework of this study. Reviews of the concepts that underpin this research will help elucidate and justify the major elements under which this study is based on. Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents. It also can be defined as the field of inquiry that addresses the ethical responsibilities of human beings for the natural environment. This field took its name from the 1979 creation of the journal Environmental Ethics. (Botzler Armstrong, 1998) Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It is the field of inquiry that addresses the ethical responsibilities of human beings for the natural environment. It also exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including law, sociology, theology, economics, ecology and geography. Environmental ethics is that part of applied ethics which examines the moral basis of our responsibility toward the environment. The fundamental questions are the following (Naess, 1973): What are the obligations of the whole of the mankind toward the natural world? How to allocate the benefits and charges deriving from the respect of these obligations? What policies and institutional structures should be established to implement them? The academic field of environmental ethics grew up in response to the work of scientists such as Rachel Carson and events such as the first Earth Day in 1970, when environmentalists started urging philosophers to consider the philosophical aspects of environmental problems. Two papers published in Science had a crucial impact: Lynn Whites The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis (March 1967) and Garrett Hardins The Tragedy of the Commons (December 1968). Also influential was Garrett Hardins later essay called Exploring New Ethics for Survival, as well as an essay by Aldo Leopold in his A Sand County Almanac, called The Land Ethic, in which Leopold explicitly claimed that the roots of the ecological crisis were philosophical (1949). 2.2 Man-nature relationship Nature can be seen as beautiful and harmonious but it also inspires fear in man who has had to fight it in order to survive. Nowadays, nature is threatened by man who has become detached from it. Technology has endowed humans with the power of a major geological agency, which may act on a continental or even planetary scale (e.g. acid rain, photochemical smog, radioactive contamination, stratospheric ozone depletion, climate change). These man-made environmental problems cannot all be solved by technology alone. Changes in human behaviour are necessary, hence the need for codes of conduct based on the ethics of the environment. The relationship between man and nature must be reconsidered. (Bourdeau, 2003) As human population growth, technology, pollution and demands on finite resources begin to tax the earths capacity. A fundamental change in mans attitude toward the environment and most important of all, an ethical basis for the necessary legal and incentives is required for the man to avoid self-destruction in the environment. According to Blackstone (1974), the main cause of environmental crisis is mistaken values and attitudes, which are the attitudes that we can exploit the environment without restrictions, that the production of goods is more important than the people who use them, that nature will provide unlimited resources, that we have no obligation to future generations to conserve resources, that continued increases in human population is desirable and that the right to have as many children as one wants is an inviolate right, that the answer to the problems of technology is more technology, and that gross differences and inequities in the distribution of goods and service s are quite acceptable. The environmental awareness movement which begin in the late 1960s is evidence that peoples attitudes are changing rapidly, and so it would seem that the development of an environmental ethics is but a logical extension of general ethics. 2.3 Environmental Philosophical Perspective There are typically four types of philosophical perspective in environmental ethics, which are technocentrism, anthropocentrism, biocentrism and ecocentrism. Technocentrism and anthropocentrism based on the values centred on technology and human while biocentrism and ecocentrism based on the values centred on ecology. 2.3.1 Technocentrism Technocentrism is the philosophical perspective that meaning values centred on technology. Technocentrics, including imperialists, have absolute faith in technology and industry and firmly believe that humans have control over nature. Although technocentrics may accept that environmental problems do exist, they do not see them as problems to be solved by a reduction in industry. Rather, environmental problems are seen as problems to be solved using science. Indeed, technocentrics see that the way forward for developed and developing countries and the solutions to our environmental problems today lie in scientific and technological advancement. 2.3.2 Anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism is the philosophical perspective asserting that ethical principles apply to humans only, and that human needs and interests are of highest, and even exclusive, value and importance. Thus, concern for nonhuman entities is limited to those entities having values to humans. There are typically two major types of anthropocentrism, which is strong anthropocentrism and weak anthropocentrism. Strong anthropocentrism is characterized by the notion that nonhuman species and natural objects have value only to the extent that they satisfy a felt preference, which is any fulfil able human desire, whether or not it is based on thought and reflection. For weak anthropocentrism, it was distinguished by the affirmation that nonhumans and nature objects can satisfy considered preferable than as well as felt preferences. A considered preference is a human desire or need that is based on careful deliberation and is compatible with a rationality adopted world view, incorporating sound metaphysics, scientific theories, aesthetic values and moral ideals. Thus, weak anthropocentrism value nonhuman entities for more than their use in meeting unreflective human needs. They value them for enriching the human experience. 2.3.3 Biocentrism Biocentrism defined as the belief that all forms of life are equally valuable and humanity is not the centre of existence. In Respect for Nature, Taylor (1986) described the fundamental points of biocentrism. First, Taylor equates the status of human beings with that of animals. He argues that humans and animals share the earth, and should live equally and harmoniously. Second, Taylor says that human and other animal species are interdependent. This rejects the view that humans need animals, or that animals depend upon humans. Third, every living creature is unique, and lives in its own way for its own good, says Taylor. This implies that one species cannot know more about what is good for another species than that species itself. Fourth, Taylor rejects the argument that human beings are inherently superior to animals. But, there is a key problem in biocentrism. This philosophical perspective still pre-ecological, which mean that not really focused on ecosystems, but on individual life forms. 2.3.4 Ecocentrism Ecocentrism is based on the philosophical premise that the natural world has inherent or intrinsic value. There are typically two types of ecocentrism which is the land ethic and deep ecology. Land ethic was first clearly articulated by Aldo Leopold in the late 1940s. The proponents of the land ethic advocate the human responsibility towards the natural world. Proponents of the land ethic advocate a true environmental ethic, valuing nature in and of itself rather than only in relation to its significance for the survival and well-being of humans or other select species. The land ethic implies human responsibility for natural communities. Deep ecology is a more recent ecocentric philosophy. This term was coined in 1974 by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, as a contrast with the notion of shallow ecology; the latter includes all superficial, short-term reform approaches to solving such environmental problems as pollution and resource depletion. Deep ecology involves an intensive questioning of the values and lifestyles that have led to serious environmental problems. 2.4 Related research with environmental philosophical perspective There are many studies have been conducted all around the world on environmental philosophical perspectives. Bjerke, T and Kaltenborn, B.P., (1999) had been conducted a study entitled The relationship of ecocentric and anthropocentric motives to attitudes toward large carnivores in Norway. The target populations in this study consist of three different groups which is sheep farmer, research biologist and wildlife manager. The results showed positive associations between anthropocentrism and negative attitudes toward carnivores, and between ecocentrism and positive attitudes toward carnivores for all three groups. Farmers, relative to the other groups, scored lowest on the concentric and highest on the anthropocentric subscales. Kortenkamp., K.V. and Moore., C.F., (2001), had conducted a study entitle Ecocentrism and anthropocentrism: moral reasoning about ecological common dilemmas to examine some issues in how people extend ethics to the natural environment. The result showed that the presence of information about the impact of ecological damage on the environment, especially a more wild environment, elicited more ecocentric reasoning, while the presence of a social commitment elicited more non environmental moral reasoning. Another study related with environmental philosophical perspective was a study conducted by Casey., P.J. and Scott., K., (2006), entitled Environmental concern and behaviour in an Australian sample within an ecocentric-anthropocentric framework. The result of this study showed that female gender, better education, and being older were associated with higher levels of ecocentric concern for the environment and reporting more ecological behaviours. References Bjerke, T., Kaltenborn, B. P. (1999). The relationship of ecocentric and anthropocentric motives to attitudes toward large carnivores. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 19, 415-421. Blackstone, T. W. (1974). Philosophy and Environmental Crisis: University of the Georgia Press. Botzler, R. G., Armstrong, S. J. (1998). Environmental Ethics: Divergence and Convergence (2nd ed.): McGraw-Hill. Bourdeau, P. (2003). The man nature relationship and environmental ethics. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 72, 9-15. Casey, P. J., Scott, K. (2006). Environmental Concern and Behaviour in an Australian Sample Within an Ecocentric-Anthropocentric Framework. Australian Journal of Psychology, 58(2), 57-67. Kortenkamp, K. V., Moore, C. F. (2001). Ecocentrism and Anthropocentrism: Moral Reasoning About Ecological Commons Dilemmas. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 261-272. Naess, A. (1973). The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement. Inquiry, 16(1-4), 95-100. Taylor, P. (1986). Respect For Nature: Princeton University Press.

A Study On Office Ergonomics Management Essay

A Study On Office Ergonomics Management Essay Office ergonomics serve important functions in preparing for, and responding to, workplace critical incidents. Workplace critical incidents are sudden, unexpected events that often are significant enough to overwhelm normal coping responses. They vary in type and severity and can affect employees as well as management. Such incidents can seriously affect the psychological, emotional, and physical well-being of employees, employers, and the entire organization. Negative effects from the unresolved trauma of a critical incident in the workplace can contribute to overall lowered levels of productivity, poor performance, more frequent interpersonal conflict, increased absenteeism, increased use of physical and mental health benefits, increased workers compensation claims, higher turnover, higher rates of alcohol and other substance misuse and abuse, and lower overall employee satisfaction and morale. According to Jones (1985:11-12) it is recognized that no one is immune to problems. It is quite common that a problem in ones sphere of life will affect the other spheres, that is, it is possible that work related problems to have adverse effects on an employees relationship with his or her colleagues, friends, supervisors and family members while on the other side of the coin a person experiencing personal problem originating from home can have a negative impact on the individual performance at work. Already, healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and media and entertainment industries find over 25 percent of their workforce engaged in knowledge generation, idea generation, and innovation. Professional knowledge workers share in the responsibility of generating the competitive edge of big enterprise. Bryan and Joyce (2005) report several statistics reinforcing how professionals experience interconnection. They cite that many large national and global organizations may employ as many as 10,000 professional knowledge generators within their corporations. These people may have as many as 50 million bilateral relationships. From these numbers, one can make out that 21st century workers do not perform in a traditional vertical or linear organizational design. Thus employee should be at the centre of every business activity and they should be integrated in a way that they deliver to the core strategy of the business. Employee should be regarded as a direct means of achieving the objectives of the company and they should be considered as an integral element of business practices in view to increase performance and brand name of the company. That why the social need and belonging is very important to present in companies so that employees can get a sense that they know they feel recognised in working in the company. Individuals facing both personal and work related problems do exist at Air Mauritius Ltd. These problems may have their origin with their work design, interpersonal relationships at work or at home, health problem, psycho-social problems, inability to meet family and social life expectations, poor personal financial management, lack of trust and communication with the organization or suffering from stress as a result of perceiving organizational practices as being unfair towards our person. In view that the social dimension of the enterprises in Mauritius is becoming more and more important, Air Mauritius Ltd should at all cost put its people at the heart of its economic and social progress by focusing on their needs for support when they face problem that can shatter both their personal and professional life. To respond to these needs Mauritian airline company should adopt a holistic approach by putting in place broad and explicit structures for dealing with employee problems through early identification and referral, that is, professional attention so that the employee can be assisted to unleash his/her potential to cope with work and life events that may causing harm to his/her personal and professional life. Organisational Profile Air Mauritius Ltd which is one of the main drivers of the Mauritian economy was incorporated in June 1967 and started operations with a Piper Navajo to transport passengers to Rà ©union Island. Forty three (44) years later, the unique Mauritian airline company has grown with an actual fleet of 12 aircraft comprising of 8 wide bodied aircraft, 2 narrow bodied aircraft and 2 prop turbo aircraft and 3 helicopters. The different types of aircraft are illustrated below: Types of Aircraft Number Airbus A340-300 5 Airbus A340-300E 2 Airbus A319-100 2 ATR 72-500 2 Airbus A330-200 1 Total 12 Helicopter 3 Table 3.1-Types of Aircraft From a domestic airline carrier, Air Mauritius Ltd has become the leading scheduled international passenger airline in the Indian Ocean and also serves 28 destinations touching four (4) continents namely Africa, Asia, Australia Europe. It has also expanded its scope of service which includes operation of international and domestic scheduled air services for the carriage of passengers, freight and mail and ancillary services such as cargo. The greatest part of the revenue generation comes from the business and leisure travel with the latter being the main passenger segment which generated 86% of the revenue, 10.4% from cargo services and 4% from other activities conducted by its subsidiaries. During the past four financial years, the number of passengers carried by Air Mauritius Ltd has been fluctuating due to decrease in travel demand as a result of the world unprecedented financial crisis that hit countries where the mass of our passengers are located. Apart from operating aircraft, involved in air cargo services and other aviation ancillary activities, Air Mauritius Ltd has also diversified in other business activities through its subsidiaries namely: Mauritius Estate Development Corporation Ltd (MEDCOR) which is engaged in leasing of office and commercial space Pointe Cotton resort Hotel Co Ltd which owns Cotton bay Hotel in Rodrigues Island and provides hotel accommodation together with all hotel services Airmate Ltd which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Air Mauritius Ltd incorporated in 2006 to provide call centre and IT enabling services Air Mauritius (SA) (Pty) Ltd which acts as a travel agent for Air Mauritius in South Africa Organisational Structure Apart from its Board of Directors and the Chief Executive Office, Air Mauritius is made up of the following clusters: Flight Operations Cabin Operations Grounds Operations Technical Services Human Resources Organisational Development Internal Audit Finance Information Systems Strategic Planning Communication Corporate Affairs Commercial Procurement Cargo Manpower composition Air Mauritius has a total workforce of 2199 employees who work in Mauritius and it comprises of: Male 1406 Female 793 Total 2199 Table 3.3No of employees Human Resources Issues One of the mandates of the company is to manage and develop its human resources so as it can attained its corporate objectives. Air Mauritius Ltd through its mission statement and values, it demonstrates that they value their employees as one of its missions is to be a rewarding performance driven organistaion and a great place to work and promise to display professional and caring attitude and speak and act positively with our valued customers which include also the employees. Air Mauritius like other business enterprises is not immune of human resource issues that impact on corporate and financial performance. The most common features are labour turnover, termination of employment, sickness absenteeism, injuries at work, medical costs etc and a review of the data of associated with these problems reveal the following: For most people, work is a safe haven. But high-profile incidents/accidents at workplace and safety and health laws are compelling employers to develop preventive programs to mitigate these problems, resulting in the creation of a promising new niche for health and safety professionals. Improved personal control and comfort needs of employees triggered the concern among organisations to provide them with an environment and office design, which fulfill the employees needs and helps to improve their productivity. Most people spend fifty percent of their lives within indoor environments, which significantly influence their mental status, actions, abilities and performance. (Amina Hameed 2009 adopted from (Sundstrom 1994)). Better physical environment of office will boost the employees and ultimately improve their productivity. Various literature pertain to the study of multiple offices and office buildings indicated that the factors such as dissatisfaction, cluttered workplaces and the physical environment are playing a major role in the loss of employees productivity (Amina Hameed 2009 adopted from Carnevale 1992, Clements-Croome 1997). According to Betty G. Dillard (February 1997) the discipline of ergonomics emerged in United Kingdom in the late 1940s and was first officially recognised in the USA in 1957 through the Human Factors Society. In the 1960s and 1970s ergonomics became a familiar study to the field of industrial engineering, and by the late 1970s ergonomics was recognized as a multidisciplinary field at the University of Michigan School of Engineering. Ergonomics is an important factor in achieving and maintaining high levels of worker productivity. Jeffrey E. Fernandez (April 1995) defined ergonomics as the design of the workplace, equipment, machine, tool, product, environment, and system, while considering the humans physical, physiological, biomechanical, and psychological capabilities, and optimising the effectiveness and productivity of work systems while assuring the safety, health, and wellbeing of the workers. Ergonomics is a discipline concerned with all aspects of designing for people. The aim in ergonomics is to fit the task to the individual, not the individual to the task. Ann Brook (1998) further defined ergonomics as the practice of learning about human characteristics and then using that understanding to improve peoples interaction with the things they use and with the environments in which they do so Hundreds of millions of people around the world work in offices. Improving the quality of these environments through user-centered design would provide enormous health, social, and economic benefits to society. Office ergonomics provides an arbitrary framework for integrating a large body of research that is relevant to the design of office work environments to optimize the health, safety, comfort, and effectiveness of their human occupants. (Jay L. Brand 2009) Office ergonomics is an applied branch of human factors and ergonomics. At least 50% of the worlds population presently works in some form of office (Jay L. Brand, P.h.D.( 2009) adapted from Brounen, and Eichholtz 2004; Charles et al, 2004; Veitch et al 2007). To demonstrate this potential, at least 2% of the American workforce suffers from a work-related musculoskeletal disorder (WRMSD) annually (Jay L. Brand 2009 adapted from Faucett et al 2002). Within the European Union (EU), work-related musculoskeletal disorders (cumulative trauma disorders) constitute 40-50% of this (Jay L. Brand, P.h.D.( 2009) adapted from Drury et al., 2006). Several basic research areas inform office ergonomics body of knowledge and guide its practice, including anthropometry, biomechanics, work physiology, environmental science (e.g., indoor air quality, personal space/territoriality; Sommer, 1969), individual differences, visual and auditory perception, mental workload, information processing, and human motivation. A number of applied areas of interest also enrich office ergonomics research and practice, including macroergonomics, participative ergonomics, usability, job and task analysis, human-computer interaction, displays and controls, organizational design and behavior, and organizational development. Office ergonomics must not only provide design guidance to minimize or eliminate health and safety issues; increasingly, the discipline needs to deliver positive organizational outcomes such as enhancing employee recruitment, retention, and productivity (Jay L. Brand2009 adapted from Lahiri et al, 2005) Hughes (2007) surveyed 2000 employees pertain to various organizations and industries in multiple levels. The reported results of these survey showed that nine out of ten believed that a workspace quality affects the attitude of employees and increases their productivity. Employees in different organizations have different office designs. Every office has unique furniture and spatial arrangements, lighting and heating arrangements and different levels of noise. Office design Office design is defined by BNet Business Dictionary (2008) as, the arrangement of workspace so that work can be performed in the most efficient way. Office design incorporates both ergonomics and work flow, which examine the way in which work is performed in order to optimise layout. Office design is an important factor in job satisfaction. It affects the way in which employees work, and many organisations have implemented open-plan offices to encourage teamwork. Office design is very vital in employee satisfaction, and the broad concept of office design also includes the workflow. The work is analysed initially and it is identified that how it is accomplished and then the overall setting of the office is made according to that flow. This ensures the smooth running of work in the office without hindrances. Over the years, many organisations have devised new designs and techniques to construct office buildings, which can boost productivity, and magnetise more and more employees. Many researches have noted that, the physical layout of the workspace, along with well-organised management processes, is playing a significant role in increasing employees productivity and enhancing organisational performance (Amina Hameed 2009 adapted from Uzee, 1999; Leaman and Bordass, 1993; Williams et al. 1985). A study was conducted on US workplace environment by taking a sample size of 2013. The research was related to; workplace designs, work satisfaction, and productivity. 89 percent of the respondents rated design, from important to very important. Almost 90 percent of senior officials revealed that effective workplace design is important for the increase in employees productivity. The final outcome of the survey suggested that businesses can enhance their productivity by improving their workplace designs. A rough estimation was made by executives, which showed that almost 22 percent increase can be achieved in the companys performance if their offices are well designed. (Gensler, 2006). It is an undoubtedly fact that almost many organisations still do not give much importance to workplace design. As many as 40 percent of the employees believe that their companies want to keep their costs low that is why their workplaces have bad designs; and 46 percent of employees think that the priority list of their company does not have workplace design on top. When data was summarised, almost one out of every five employees rated their workplace environment from, fair to poor. 90 percent admitted that their attitude about work is adversely affected by the quality of their workplace environment. Yet again 89 percent blamed their working environment for their job dissatisfaction (Gensler, 2006). The American Society of Interior Designers (ASID, 1999) carried out an independent study and revealed that the physical workplace design is one of the top three factors, which affect performance and job satisfaction. The study results showed that 31 percent of people were satisfied with their jobs and had pleasing workplace environments. 50 percent of people were seeking jobs and said that they would prefer a job in a company where the physical environment is good. Brill et al. (1984) ranked factors, which affect productivity according to their importance. The factors are sequenced based on the significance: Furniture, Noise, Flexibility, Comfort, Communication, Lighting, Temperature and the Air Quality. Amina Hameed 2009 adapted from Springer Inc (1986) stated that an insurance company in a study revealed that the best ergonomic furniture improved performance by 10 to 15 percent. Leaman (1995) attempted to find the relationship between indoor environment, dissatisfied employees and their productivity. The results revealed that the productivity of the work is affected because the people were unhappy with temperature, air quality, light and noise levels in the office. The productivity level was measured by the method of self reported measurement, which is a 9 point scale from greater than -40 and less than +40 percent (loss/gain). The data collected was correlated and results said that the coefficient of correlation (r)=0.92 and the correlation exists between people who showed dissatisfaction with their indoor environment and those reporting that their productivity is affected by the office environment. Transition of closed offices to open offices. Open offices are distinguished from closed offices as having minimal floor-to-ceiling divisions inside the building shell other than structural or supporting elements. Problems with inadequate privacy and personal control have largely been replicated and extended by subsequent research to include impaired organizational performance, greater stress and cognitive workload, lower intrinsic motivation, more difficulty in concentrating, and less likelihood of adjusting so-called ergonomic furniture among workers in open-plan offices compared with those in enclosed offices (Jay L. Brand 2009 adapted from Banbury Berry, 2005) Maher and von Hippel (2005), measured 60 male and 49 female office workers in a field study of two open-plan office environments. Their results pointed to the importance of individual differences and salient job characteristics, as well as to a discrepancy between the visual-symbolic nature of partial enclosures and their actual effectiveness as acoustic barriers. These findings suggest that employees engaged in complex tasks or with low stimulus-screening ability prefer enclosed offices. Young office employees prefer to spend a greater proportion of their time working in groups or teams than individually. Based on the available literature, it must be concluded that any individual, group, or organizational advantages of moving from closed to open offices depend on a conceptual framework that links a number of merely interesting assumptions still lacking adequate empirical investigation. What appear on the surface to be compelling claims of improved communication, collaboration, community, creativity, and innovation among employees in open offices have received only mixed support at best. Factors affecting Office ergonomics The futureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦depends on how we develop human interfaces that create a match between the internal rhythms of the operator and the computer. ( Harry C. Sweere (2002) Harry C. Sweere (2002) conducted a study to investigate on the ergonomics factors involved in optimum computer workstation design. He pointed out the factors that are involved in the design of a computer workstation. The goal of conducting his research was to offer a practical guide to interpret published ergonomic guidelines and the anthropometric data that can be used to create a user friendly, ergonomically correct computer work environment. According to Harry C. Sweere (2002) the factors involved in the design of a computer workstation are namely:- à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Visual display unit (VDU) adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Keyboard placement/adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Work surface adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Chair design/adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Foot rests à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Wrist rests à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Glare screens à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Lighting, task lighting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ease of adjustability à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Accessibility to components à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Human Computer Interfaces (HCIs) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Space savings All of the above issues concern themselves with the reduction or elimination of a class of physical disorders associated with poor ergonomic design known as Musculoskeletal Stress Disorders (MSDs), which result in: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Eye, neck and back strain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fatigue, headache à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Wrist, hand, elbow and shoulder diseases such as à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Carpal Tunnel Syndrome à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Tenosynovitis à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Tendonitis à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾ Synovitis Some of the main causes of eye, neck and back strain, which cause visual problems and wrist, hand, elbow and shoulder diseases are: Improper Visual Display Unit screen height and the inability to adjust the screen height to individual preferences Improper Visual Display Unit viewing distance and the inability to adjust the same Improper Visual Display Unit viewing angle and the difficulty of adjusting the viewing angle especially of larger monitors Improper keyboard vertical, fore and aft and tilt positioning. A good ergonomic design principle must be applied to give the operator or a range of operators the optimum man-machine interface and the adjustability required to prevent discomfort and prevent workplace injuries. In many cases the specialised video display mounting technology developed for these work environments can be applied to the desktop to provide ergonomic adjustability and space saving benefits for this environment as well. Screen Height The recommended screen height for VDT monitors is that the top of the monitor screen should be set at or slightly below (approximately 1-2) the eye height of the user when the user is sitting or standing in a comfortable, relaxed position. Whenever possible the screen height should be variable to accommodate personal preferences throughout the day. Harry C. Sweere (2002) Screen Tilt Ideally an upward tilt with the bottom of the screen tilted toward the operator provides optimum viewing because it provides a consistent focal length when scanning from the top of the screen to the bottom. A tilt range of 12 ° to 20 ° is ideal depending upon the size of the monitor. (Harry C. Sweere (2002) Screen Distance from Operator Normally the monitor screen should be placed as far away as possible from the operator, consistent with the ability to read the information presented on the screen. A good rule of thumb for most installations is that the monitor screen should be placed at arms length, with the provision to move the monitor back and forth to suit individual needs being the ideal. Keyboard Height/Positioning Keyboards should be placed at a height that allows the operator to operate the keyboard with the forearms level and hands sloping slightly downward. A negatively tilting keyboard, allowing the operator to keep the wrinkles out of the top of the wrists is ideal. Fore and aft positioning of the keyboard should be consistent with allowing the hands to move easily over the keyboard with forearms level and elbows at the sides, maintaining a 90 ° 110 ° angle between upper and lower arms. Screen/Keyboard Height Variance Anthropometric data for the average range of male to female operators indicates that the top of the monitor screen to centerline of the keyboard placement should range from 20 to 22 with 21 being a good set-up for most applications. Seating Although Lueder and Noro (1994) remains an excellent reference for most of the important considerations related to user-centered seating design, more recent work has enlarged on the importance of an integrative systems framework for predicting seated comfort and discomfort. User-centered seating evaluations tend to emphasize user outcomes associated with long-term sitting such as low back disorders (Jay L.Brand 2009 adapted from Corlett, 2006; George, 2002). Marras (2005) reviewed research that demonstrated interactions between basic tissue and musculoskeletal biomechanics with individual differences (e.g., personality and gender. In light of Marrass review, practitioners should at least realize that occupant-centered design principles that include user characteristics as well as organizational and task contexts are critical, in addition to seating design itself, for preventing or ameliorating low back disorders among office workers. Av. Female 59.4 44 Improving the Human Interface with Computers Ergonomic studies done years ago indicate that screen positioning and keyboard adjustability are some of the most important factors in providing a comfortable work environment and preventing a broad range of MSDs associated with computer use. Disorders such as eye, neck and back strain, fatigue, headaches, and wrist, hand, elbow and shoulder diseases such as Carpal Tunnel Syndrome can all be dramatically improved through use of good ergonomic design. The foregoing paper is based upon sound ergonomic ground rules and scientific anthropometric data, which can be used by computer workstation designers to help provide an optimum human interface for their computers. Workstation designers are urged to consult with a certified Ergonomist who is familiar with the applicable anthropometric data and computer workstation ergonomic standards for corroboration of the recommendations made for each application. In order to meet such ambitious demands, a broader, systems view for office ergonomics must be adopted (Jay L. Brand 2009) adapted from Bettendorf, 1998). Such a framework fully acknowledges the influence of additional psychosocial, socio-technical, and organisational layers beyond individual human-workstation interactions. Whether or not a foot rest should be recommended depends somewhat on seat height, seat back angle, and seat pan angle as well as on knee clearance considerations related to desk surface height, placement of input devices, and the relative position of these components to one another. (Jay L. Brand 2009) After all, maintaining neutral body postures in any particular limb or body segment should not require that other limbs or body segments assume awkward postures. Maintaining neutral postures and neutral loadings for users requires simultaneous design of the physical components of the environment, their spatial relationships to one another, the users behavioral interaction with each component, and task requirements. (Jay L. Brand 2009) Marshall et al (1999) investigated the influence of complex wrist and forearm postures on wrist range of motion (ROM). Although their results relate more to human functionality constraints than to awkward postures per se, they still illustrate the necessity of an interactive systems framework for applying basic ergonomics research to practical office design problems. Wrist postures cannot be evaluated independently of elbow position, and therefore the design of keyboards or mice cannot be optimized without also considering the design and placement of forearm or wrist suppor. (Jay L. Brand ( 2009)) Helander, Little, and Drury (2000) found that seat height and seat pan angle in particular were interdependent, even when participants adjusted a single chair in isolation-that is, adjustments of one influenced adjustments of the other. An applied example of interdependence among ergonomics principles given in Smith and Cohen (1997) involves the need for a headrest if people use a reclined posture, either to decrease spinal loading. Allie et al (2005) suggested that human-machine system outputs (performance/productivity), user symptoms ( pain, comfort, and discomfort ratings; workload) user preferences and expectations ( spontaneously adjusted settings/positions of office furniture and equipment), biomechanical/ musculoskeletal factors (awkward postures; muscle tension, sensory/perceptual conditions (visual acuity; visual accommodation responses; color responses individual differences ), and task requirements must be taken into consideration when managing office ergonomics. Training A related development since Smith and Cohens (1997) masterful review of the office ergonomics literature involves the importance of placing ergonomics findings within their larger psychosocial and organizational contexts. One relevant aspect of this higher-order context relates to the quality of education and training about the elements and importance of ergonomics design guidelines and other interventions (Smith Bayehi, 2003). The value of basic ergonomics information within applied settings often depends on the effectiveness of such training/orientation programs, as well as on individual differences (Levitt Hedge, 2006). Recent reviews have affirmed the well-known risk factors in the development of musculoskeletal difficulties among office workers: frequency/repetition, awkward or static postures, excessive muscle loads, inadequate recovery/ rest periods and cool temperatures. Ambient and Task Lighting The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (Jay L. Brand, 2009) adapted from IESNA, 2004) recommends maximum luminance ratios of 1:3 between central task materials and the immediate visual surround (approximately 25 ° visual angle, centered at fixation) and 1:10 between task materials and more remote surroundings. Unfortunately, in actual practice, the conditions relevant to these recommendations are rarely measured and anecdotal evidence suggests that luminance ratios often exceed this advice. In addition to their helpful review of previous lighting research that is salient for the design of office lighting, Sheedy, Smith, and Hayes (2005) employed a laboratory experiment featuring fixed head position to clarify and extend current design recommendations. Distinguishing between disability and discomfort glare they described transient adaptation effects from fixating back and forth between two disparate luminance levels-a frequent situation confronting employees in office work environments. Sheedy et al. compared younger (N = 20, mean age 27.9 years, range 23-39) and older (N = 17, mean age 55.5 years, range 47-63) participants performing a central task (presented at 91 cd/m2) at surround luminances of 1.4, 2.4, 8.9, 25.5, 50, 91, 175, 317, and 600 cd/m2. Disability glare was assessed with low-contrast (20%) visual acuity charts; discomfort glare was measured with a questionnaire and preferred (surround) luminance by the method of adjustment. Younger participants performed b est at a surround luminance of 50 cd/m2 and older ones at 91 cd/m2 (equivalent to task luminance). Surround luminance influenced transient adaptation at low but not high levels for both age groups. The design of lighting and day lighting has also experienced a shift from direct guidelines such as adjustable task lighting to provide adequate luminance and legibility/ contrast for work materials or the elimination of glare to the importance of the larger, perceptual context for understanding user-centered design. (Jay L. Brand 2009) However, some evidence paints a more optimistic picture of providing useful, objective guidelines for office lighting. Jay L. Brand (2009) (adapted from Newsham and Veitch (2001)) derived several practical guidelines, including the follow

Workplace Violence Essay -- Workplace Health and Safety

Workplace Violence In January 1997, a man drove into the parking lot of a major company in Baltimore County, pulled out a gun, and aimed it at his girlfriend who was sitting in her car and killed her. The man shot himself. Several days after that, another man in another part of the county, in attempt to commit suicide, drove his vehicle the wall of a business and injured an employee who was sitting at his desk. (National, 1996) There is a general perception that violence is growing in our society. Almost everyday we can turn on the news or read the newspaper and we hear stories about horrific workplace murders and assaults. Not only is the workplace violence increasing in those workplaces where violence is expected, such as correction, enforcement, and mental health, but also it has become a danger in almost every occupation that deals with the public. Therefore, few would argue that over the last ten years, occupational violence has become a serious problem facing workers and employers alike. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, murder was the second leading cause of death in the workplace in 1996, accounting for 15% of all workplace deaths. Although the press focuses on the â€Å"crazy worker-type violence,† where a worker kills his supervisor or co-worker, violence among co-workers occurs very infrequently compared to other types of workplace violence. Since 1992, violence among co-worker s has averaged only about 6% of all work-related homicides. The rest are the result of robberies or other crimes. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, each year nearly one million individuals become victims of violent crime while working or on duty. Eight percent of all rapes, 7% of all robberies, and 16% of all assault... ...al Safety and Health Alert: Request for Assistance in Prevention Homicide in the Workplace, US Department of Health and Human Services, Sept 1993. 6. Irvine, Robert B, â€Å"Workplace Violence, What To Do When Tragedy Strikesâ€Å", Public Relations TACTICS, Dec. 1995. 7. Labor Occupational Health Program, Violence on the Job: A Guidebook for Labor and Management, University of California, Berkeley, 1997 8. Mattman, Jurg W, â€Å"Preventing Violence in the Workplace â€Å", Online Available: http://www.noworkviolence.com/articles/preventing_violence.htm 9. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, â€Å"Violence in the Workplace, Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies†, Current Intelligence Bulletin 57, June 1996. 10. Robinson, Janet, â€Å"10 Facts Every Employer Should Know About Workplace Violence†, Online Available: http://www.smartbiz.com/sbs/columns/robin1.htm Workplace Violence Essay -- Workplace Health and Safety Workplace Violence In January 1997, a man drove into the parking lot of a major company in Baltimore County, pulled out a gun, and aimed it at his girlfriend who was sitting in her car and killed her. The man shot himself. Several days after that, another man in another part of the county, in attempt to commit suicide, drove his vehicle the wall of a business and injured an employee who was sitting at his desk. (National, 1996) There is a general perception that violence is growing in our society. Almost everyday we can turn on the news or read the newspaper and we hear stories about horrific workplace murders and assaults. Not only is the workplace violence increasing in those workplaces where violence is expected, such as correction, enforcement, and mental health, but also it has become a danger in almost every occupation that deals with the public. Therefore, few would argue that over the last ten years, occupational violence has become a serious problem facing workers and employers alike. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, murder was the second leading cause of death in the workplace in 1996, accounting for 15% of all workplace deaths. Although the press focuses on the â€Å"crazy worker-type violence,† where a worker kills his supervisor or co-worker, violence among co-workers occurs very infrequently compared to other types of workplace violence. Since 1992, violence among co-worker s has averaged only about 6% of all work-related homicides. The rest are the result of robberies or other crimes. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, each year nearly one million individuals become victims of violent crime while working or on duty. Eight percent of all rapes, 7% of all robberies, and 16% of all assault... ...al Safety and Health Alert: Request for Assistance in Prevention Homicide in the Workplace, US Department of Health and Human Services, Sept 1993. 6. Irvine, Robert B, â€Å"Workplace Violence, What To Do When Tragedy Strikesâ€Å", Public Relations TACTICS, Dec. 1995. 7. Labor Occupational Health Program, Violence on the Job: A Guidebook for Labor and Management, University of California, Berkeley, 1997 8. Mattman, Jurg W, â€Å"Preventing Violence in the Workplace â€Å", Online Available: http://www.noworkviolence.com/articles/preventing_violence.htm 9. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, â€Å"Violence in the Workplace, Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies†, Current Intelligence Bulletin 57, June 1996. 10. Robinson, Janet, â€Å"10 Facts Every Employer Should Know About Workplace Violence†, Online Available: http://www.smartbiz.com/sbs/columns/robin1.htm

Essay --

Many may say that the Antebellum Temperance Movement was primarily motivated by religious moralism. I tend to take that stance as well. The Antebellum Temperance Movement of the 18th century was focused around the idea that people, mostly men, should abstain from alcohol if they could not drink the spirits in moderation. In this era, many women had suffered greatly because their loved ones would imbibe excessively leaving them short on money, food, and even shelter which left many impoverished and unable to care for their families. Additionally, the excessive consumption of alcohol led to health care issues, crime and in the end, destitution. The first author, W.J. Rorabaugh, is a proponent on the side of how Christian ministers, â€Å"portrayed liquor as the tool of the devil and develop temperance societies as socialization institutions to ease social tensions and anxieties that contributed to alcohol consumption,† (Madaras, L.; SoRelle, J. Pg. 256) Appositionally, John J. Rumbarger opposes by stating that, â€Å"the nineteenth–century temperance reform was the product of the pro-capitalist market economy whose entrepreneurial elite led the way toward abstinence and prohibitionist campaigns. In order to guarantee the availability for a more productive workforce,† (Madaras, L.; SoRelle, J. Pg. 256). I agree with W.J. Rorabaugh that during the Antebellum Temperance Movement, the church’s played an enormous role in prohibiting alcohol consumption because it was the â€Å"tool of the devil†. In taking sides, it is evident that W.J. Rorabaugh was on the right track when he points out that many evangelic religious leaders formed groups to reiterate to the people that liquor was the tool of the devil and that basically, society would continue to... ...d represent a mechanism of social control and did instigate the connection between religion and the need for social reform. In Taking Sides, although Rumbarger and Rorabaugh both had strong, compelling points on the Antebellum Temperance Movement, I believe that W.J. Rorabaugh provided enough evidence that convinced me that the Church’s definitely furthered the movement of Antebellum Temperance Reform. Since drinking was labeled as the â€Å"devil’s tool†, many of the temperance movements and the participation thereof consisted of women and pastors. I believe that the two combined were a powerful entity and really wanted to believe that ultimately, people could make better choices for their lives. Therefore, it was easier to convince society that by living a life with a moral code, free of alcohol and all the turmoil it brought, further helped reshape the society.

An Overview of Selective Mutism Essay -- Health, Disorder, Aphasia Vol

Hesselman coined the term â€Å"selective mutism† in 1983 to describe the disorder previously called â€Å"aphasia voluntaria, elective mutism, speech phobia, psychological mutism, and hearing mute† among fourteen other historic terms (Dow, Freeman, Garcia, Leonard, & Miller, 2004; Kearney, 2010). The American Psychiatric Association, or APA, characterizes selective mutism by a â€Å"persistent failure to speak in specific social situations where speech is expected, despite speaking in other situations.† Selective mutism shifted in recent years from being viewed as a response to trauma sustained early in life to a manifestation of an anxiety disorder (Dow et al, 2004). This paper briefly covers all aspects of selective mutism from signs and symptoms to diagnosis and treatment. Selective mutism is a rare condition and some discrepancies exist pertaining to its incidence. Beidel and Turner (2005) state that the incidence falls between .18-.76 percent, while Kearney (2010) states that the incidence falls between .20-2.0 percent. No known cause currently exists. Researchers identified common similarities between children with selective mutism. The most prevalent similarities are gender (1.5 females have selective mutism compared to every one male), having a language or anxiety disorder, having a social phobia, and a family history of selective mutism or social phobia. Dow, Freeman, Garcia, Leonard, and Miller (2004) state that out of patients with selective mutism, â€Å"70 percent had a first degree relative with a social phobia or avoidant disorder and 37 percent had a first degree relative with selective mutism† (p. 286). The APA classifies selective mutism under DSM-IV. A child’s behavior must meet these criteria for diagnosis of sele... ...n. If a child’s speech and language skills are inadequate, the speech-language pathologist will work with the child to improve the skill that the child struggles with. They also help parents and teachers understand what the child is experiencing and how to assist with implementing the provided treatment plan. Selective mutism is a rare disorder that affects mainly children. Treating selective mutism early and vigorously leads to success. Research about treatment methods and causes of selective mutism is limited due to the rarity and uniqueness of the disorder. While no known cause is recognized for contributing to selective mutism, professionals use many indicators to assess and diagnose a child. Children with selective mutism, contrary to popular belief, do communicate through gestures and nods but fail to speak in unfamiliar and uncomfortable situations.

Views of stereotypes in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

During the early 1800's, racism was still rampant among citizens in America, especially those in the south. Minorities were generalized as a member of a certain racial group and stereotyped with degrading qualities that implied that they were less than human. In the novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain creates a character with all of the African-American stereotypes, and throughout the novel, develops him into a character that everyone can relate to, showing that he is human. At that time, African-Americans were seen as animals that did not care for anyone, but Twain shows that Jim has feelings, despite what society thinks. Another aspect of the African-American stereotype was that all African-Americans were stupid, but Jim, although uneducated, is not portrayed as stupid. A common belief among racists at the time was that African-Americans were less than human, but throughout the novel, Jim shows feelings of despair, regret and compassion, all of which are humanlike. In contrast to the typical stereotype that African-Americans care for no one but theirselves, Jim is depicted as an extremely caring person. When describing his daughter to Huck, Jim says, â€Å"En wid dat I fetch' her a slap side de head dat sont her a-spawlin'†¦Oh, Huck, I bust out a-cryin' en grab her up in my arms, en say, ‘Oh, de po' little thing! De Lord God Amighty fogive po' Jim, kaze he never gwyne to forgive hisself as lon's he live!†(156). In this quotation, Jim expresses extreme regrete and sorrow for his daughter whom he has realized is deaf and couldn't hear anything he was saying to her. When Huck and Jim have been separated and Huck is staying at the Grangerfords, Jim shows another instance of caring. When Huck saw Jim for the first time again he wrote, † I waked him up, and I reckoned it was going to be a grand surprise to him to see me again, but it warn't. He nearly cried he was so glad, but he warn't surprised†(114). In this quotation, Twain illustrates Jim's concern for not only his own family, but for his Huck, whom he has formed a unique friendship with. Twain successfully develops Jim into a character that cares not only for his family, but for his friends. African-Americans and slaves especially, were stereotyped as ignorant in the early 1800's. Jim, like most other slaves, has no formal education and talks in a dialect that makes him appear to be less educated. However Jim has a unique kind of intelligence. When Huck was trying to trick Jim into thinking that he had dreamt up their separation in the fog, Jim notices the debris on Huck, â€Å"Jim looked at the trash, and then looked at me, and back at the trash again. He had got the dream fixed so strong in his head that he couldn't seem to shake it loose and get the facts back into its place again right away. But when he did get the thing straightened around he looked at me steady without ever smiling† (54). Jim shows his common sense smarts by figuring out when Huck is lying to him. The fact that Huck, an educated white boy, couldn't fool Jim, an uneducated slave, with his scheme shows that although Jim is uneducated, he is intelligent in his own way. When the Duke and the King come on board the raft, Jim knows that since the King claims he is from France, that he should be able to speak French. â€Å"I found Jim had been trying to get him to talk French, so he could hear what it was like; but he said he had been in this country so long, and had so much trouble, he'd forgot it†(179). This shows the reasoning ability that Jim has. He knows that since the King is from France he should be able to speak French. Huck interprets this as Jim wanting to hear French, but what Jim is actually trying to do is to verify the King's story and keep themselves safe. Perhaps the worst stereotype about African-Americans at that time was that they were less than human, unable to feel humanlike emotions or act like normal humans do. Jim is portrayed as exactly the opposite, routinely risking his own life and freedom for the welfare of others. When Tom has been shot and Huck is consulting with Jim on what they should do, Jim says, â€Å"Well, den, is Jim gwyne to say it? No, sah-I doan'budge a step out'n this place ‘dout a doctor; not if it's forty year! (266)†. Jim has decided to risk being caught again to make sure that Tom Sawyer sees a doctor. He knows very well that he could easily be caught doing this and set back into slavery, but he does it anyway. This shows that Jim is a very humanlike character who experiences humanlike emotions, compassion in this instance, and acts in selfless ways. Twain again demonstrates Jim's equality and humanlike characteristics when Huck and Jim and eating on the raft. Huck writes, â€Å"so Jim he go t out some corn-dodgers and buttermilk, and pork and cabbage and greens†¦ and whilst I eat my supper we talked and had a good time† (126). This quotation illustrates Jim as an equal to Huck who can experience the same easy-going and fun emotions that Huck can. No where in the book is Jim unable to understand an emotion Huck or any other person is feeling, showing his humanity. Jim is a representation of how all people can feel emotions for others, be intelligent no matter how uneducated they are, and experience emotions of the human race. Mark Twain has succeeded in creating a character who although is a minority, embodies characteristics that people can relate to. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was an important statement against racism and the values taught can still be applies to the American culture today.

Tim O’Brien “How to Tell a True War Story”

The words, which describe the character: Rat Kiley; sharp gray eyes; tight little strokes of the wrist; he wanted me to believe; big gentle killer eyes; little crazy; they were kids – they just didn’t know; Rat almost bawls writing it; they were like soul mates. The words, which do not describe the character: crazy in a good way; real daredevil; nineteen years old and it is too much for him. The guy’s real name was Bob Kiley, but everyone was calling him Rat (O’Brien 174).He had lost his friend Curt Lemon in Vietnam, but this loss happened beyond any military actions, when they were playing with grenades (they were real kids); Rat had actually lost his soul mate. Reading the story, Rat’s character created an impression of being flat. However, coming to the story’s end, it is evident that huge sufferings are hidden behind the childish behavior. This childish behavior has indirectly become the cause of tragedy, and suffering through this loss, Rat reveals his round dynamic character.He tries to forget his pain, but the fact that he feels it is the sign of his deep soul, which was changed in the cruelties of the Vietnam War. Curt Lemon is the character around which Rat’s actions and thoughts are concentrated. They spent most of their time together and what they felt towards each other was real kinship. The unexpected loss was so difficult for Rat that he didn’t hesitate to mail a letter to Lemon’s sister. This letter has become the expression of his feelings, his sorrow, and his best memories about that person. Re-writing the story from Rat’s perspectiveThe day didn’t predict anything tragic. We crossed the river – the mountains were in the west, and we had to direct our efforts there. We have already spent three days marching, and it already seemed monotonous†¦so well†¦we were trying to entertain ourselves, and in a second Curt Lemon was dead. He simply stepped on a boob y-trapped 105 round. One second – and the man was gone forever. We were playing, we were laughing, and then, out of sudden, he was dead. I didn’t notice that the whole hour had passed before we cut off the thick grass for the emergency helicopter to land.Surprisingly, the day didn’t change; the weather was the same, and we kept marching. The only thing was that Curt was not with us anymore. Higher in the mountains I’ve noticed a baby VC water buffalo. I had no idea how I could come across it so high in the mountains, and it was probably unexpected for me, that at that moment I could think of anything else besides Curt. I managed to get a rope around the baby buffalo and to lead it with us to the village, where we had to stay for the night. I stroked the baby buffalo’s nose, I tried to offer it come pork or beans, but it didn’t seem interested. I shrugged but I felt, how enraged I was.At that time I didn’t understand, what caused those feelings inside me, but now I know that Curt’s death had made me angry; angry for being incapable to change anything and to return him to life. I shot the buffalo through the front knee. I was shocked at the animal not showing any sign of stress; it didn’t cry. It was silent, though it fell hard onto the ground but then got up again, and at that moment I shot off its ear; I kept shooting and I could see it hurt, but for some reason I could not kill it. I would never make it suffer, but something inside me was preventing me from shooting right.I had no idea what others were thinking, but they were definitely watching each move and each shot I made. I was the only one to know, what it meant to me – Lemon was dead and he had been the best friend in the world. I am not sure whether it was a question of pain, and what pain one may mean here. I didn’t know whether physical pain could be measured or even compared to the moral pain I felt. I could not understand what I was doing, it was all smoke and I hardly remember whether I had shot the buffalo’s tail; it was as if I were dreaming. I shot it into the throat.I didn’t want it to experience those physical tortures anymore. I can still remember its eyes – enormous, shiny, and dumb. I can remember myself crying. I wanted to say how sorry I was for both the buffalo and for Lemon, but tears didn’t let any word come out. I understood I needed some freedom, some silence and some time to think, to try to recover and to ultimately feel better. I left the baby, may be it was still alive, but I didn’t know it. I just knew that it was fighting for its life, the chance which Lemon didn’t have. It will remain my sin forever, but my pain was enormous to hide it inside.I don’t still understand for whom I feel worse – for the baby buffalo I’ve killed or for Lemon who didn’t have a single chance to survive. What I know for sure is that Lemon didn’t go through the pain, which baby buffalo felt before it died. I also understand that this death could become neither physical, nor moral compensation for Lemon’s death. This is what I think now†¦ At that time I was not thinking anything. The baby buffalo’s death remains my biggest weakness – the inability to keep emotions inside. Later that week I wrote a letter to Lemon’s sister to tell her what a great guy her brother had been.I have written several funny stories from our life – I think that the letter turned to be very personal, even touching. I was almost bawling, because I could not accept the fact of his death. He had been the man able to turn the war into fun. He was right for war, and his attitudes towards war were also right. I clearly understood and I really felt that I would never receive any reply from that young girl, but I needed that writing to release my emotions and express what I was feeling about Lemon. Ev en when I pretended being angry at her, and called her â€Å"dumb cooze†, it was nothing but a mask – I didn’t want anyone know that I could feel†¦Justification I decided to focus on Rat Kiley’s character. The author emphasizes his negligent attitude towards life. â€Å"Listen to Rat: â€Å"Jesus Christ, man, I write this beautiful fucking letter, I slave over it, and what happens? The dumb cooze never writes back† (O’Brien 175). What I think is that Rat didn’t even expect to receive any reply from Lemon’s sister; he needed this letter to express what he had inside, and simultaneously he had to support his image of a guy â€Å"nineteenth years old – and it’s too much for him† (O’Brien 175).I was interested in viewing the story through his perspective, because I initially felt Rat could have been depicted differently, less crazy and more humane. As a result, the events in the narrative would loo k different through Rat’s perspective. After Lemon was dead, Rat could not find himself. He did not know how he could neutralize the moral pain he had inside. Again, the author could lead the narration in a different direction. Rat was shooting the baby buffalo – â€Å"it wasn’t to kill; it was just to hurt† (O’Brien 179).Has anyone thought that Rat might have not clearly understood what he was doing? The fact that he was crying was the best proof that his actions had been absolutely uncontrolled. Moreover, his negligence has proved to be only surface – he was deeply suffering through the loss of his friend; at his nineteen years he could consider himself happy for having experienced the kinship he felt towards Lemon. My goal was to portray Rat through different features, not the features which the author used in the narration. I suppose that the author has not looked too deep into Rat’s soul.O’Brien has created an image of Rat ’s cruelty towards the animal, and the readers perceive him as â€Å"a little crazy†. Simultaneously, he has not emphasized many features which make Rat a real human. Even the scene of animal killing could have been depicted differently, through the prism of Rat’s moral sufferings. â€Å"Rat Kiley was crying† (O’Brien 180), and that cry was the difficult acknowledgement of the fact that Lemon would never come back. Works cited O’Brien, Tim. â€Å"How to Tell a True War Story†. Postmodern American Fiction: A Norton Anthology. P. Geyh ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1992, 174-183.